The Best Non-Stim Pre-Workouts in 2023: Focus Without the Caffeine Jitters

Erin Chancer
Written by

woman preparing to lift barbell

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For strength and endurance athletes, a good pre-workout supplement is often a must-have for training motivation, focus, and a healthy amount of get-up-and-go. (If you're in the market for a pre-workout, check out our full reviews of Bucked Up, Ghost, and Woke AF) That said, pre-workouts tend to pack a lot of caffeine in their formulas and aren't guaranteed to work for all athletes, especially those that are caffeine averse or prefer to train in the evening. Not to mention, taking pre-workout for an after-work training session can affect your ability to get a decent night's sleep.

The Best Non-Stim Pre-Workout Supplements - Our Top Picks

This is why non-stim or caffeine-free pre-workouts have become increasingly popular. The best non-stim pre-workouts have a lot of the same workout-boosting ingredients as their stimulant-based counterparts but without the high amount of caffeine per dose.

We narrowed down our list of the best stim-free pre-workouts to help you power through your workout without the jitters or caffeine crash afterward. Read on and find out if one of these non-stimulant pre-workouts is the best fit for your training goals.

Why Trust Us?

The health and safety of ACTIVE’s readers is of the utmost importance to us. To ensure your well-being when consuming dietary supplements, the ACTIVE.com editorial team prioritizes products that are independently tested by a third party. We’ve consulted with a team of nutritionists and dieticians to ensure the products we feature are of the highest standard. This helps us create the most accurate, authentic review content for our readers.

Best Non-Stim Pre-Workout Overall - Legion Pulse Stim-Free

Legion_Pulse_Stim-Free

SPECS

  • Key ingredients: L-citrulline DL-malate, beta-alanine, betaine anhydrous, alpha glyceryl phosphoryl choline (GPC)
  • Flavors: Fruit Punch, Blue Raspberry, Grape, Sour Candy
  • Price per serving: $2.25/serving
  • Servings per container: 20

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Why We Picked It

We're already big fans of the Legion Pulse Pre-Workout, so the fact that they have a non-stim version of their 100% natural, clinically-effective formula made this decision a no-brainer to have this product top our list. With four scientifically-proven key ingredients—8 grams of L-citrulline DL-malate, 3.6 grams of beta-alanine, 2.5 grams of betaine anhydrous, and 300 milligrams of alpha-GPC—for stamina without jitters or a post-workout stimulant crash.

Legion Pulse Stim-Free is lab-tested for potency and purity and is available in four fruity flavors. It's also naturally sweetened and flavored with plant-based sweeteners like Stevia leaf extract and doesn't contain synthetic substances. Legion Pulse is also proudly made in the USA and offers a money-back guarantee. Last but not least, it is highly rated among reviewers for its delicious taste and ability to help provide enough energy to power through your workouts without the potential side effects of caffeine.

"I love the stim-free option. This pre-workout still gives me energy for a good workout but without post-workout jitters. I have only tried the fruit punch flavor, which is really tasty but I will definitely be trying out some of the other flavors as well!" - Taylor C. (Verified Buyer)

What We Like

  • Natural, synthetic-free ingredients that are clinically-dosed
  • Transparent labeling
  • Third-party tested
  • 100% money-back guarantee
  • Subscribe-and-save discount

What We Don't Like

  • Expensive
  • Only 20 servings per container

BUY: Legion Pulse Stim-Free


Best Non-Stim Pre-Workout for Pump - Huge Supplements Pump Serum Stim-Free

Best_Non-Stim_Pre-Workout_for_Pump

SPECS

  • Key ingredients: L-citrulline, betaine anhydrous, GlycerPump™, beetroot extract, L-tyrosine
  • Flavors: Jungle Juice, Strawberry Mojito, Cherry Berry, Island Dream
  • Price per serving: $1.37/serving
  • Servings per container: 40

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Why We Picked It

If you're a heavy lifter looking for a nitric-oxide pump from your caffeine-free pre, Huge Supplements Pump Serum Stim-Free has got you covered—pump is even in the name. Featuring a patented (and highly concentrated) 65% glycerol powder called GlycerPump™ and beetroot extract, Huge Supplements Pump Serum stands out when compared to other NO boosters on the market. We especially like the inclusion of the natural nitrates from beetroot extract, as this has been shown to help stimulate nitric oxide production in the veins for increased muscle fullness.(1)

Additionally, the contents of each 40-serving container are GMP-certified—meaning the formula is tested for quality—and made in the USA. As for the flavors, with offerings like Island Dream and Strawberry Mojito, you'll feel more like you're sipping your pre-workout poolside rather than sweating it out at the gym.

What We Like

  • 13 potent and patented ingredients
  • 40 budget-friendly servings per container
  • Highly-dosed
  • GMP-certified

What We Don't Like

  • Does contain sucralose
  • No subscription program

BUY: Huge Supplements Pump Serum Stim-Free


Best Non-Stim Pre-Workout for Focus - Legion Forge Pre-Workout Fat Burner

Best_Non-Stim_Pre-Workout_for_Focus

SPECS

  • Key ingredients: Calcium HMB, citicoline, yohimbine
  • Flavors: N/A
  • Price per serving: $1.11/serving
  • Servings per container: 45

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Why We Picked It

For a unique approach to pre-workout stimulation without using stimulants, Legion Forge Pre-Workout Fat Burner offers three science-backed ingredients for fat loss, athletic performance, and heightened focus with each 4-capsule serving. Legion Forge is also third-party tested and is free from artificial fillers, flavors, and dyes. If your goal in the gym is weight loss, this is an excellent option to help you narrow down your focus and get the most out of your training sessions.

What We Like

  • Clinically-effective dosage
  • 100% natural without additives
  • Money-back guarantee
  • Third-party tested

What We Don't Like

  • Capsules, as opposed to powder
  • May not work for users not looking to burn fat

BUY: Legion Forge Pre-Workout Fat Burner


Best Natural Non-Stim Pre-Workout - KOS Love You Berry Much

Best_Natural_Non-Stim_Pre-Workout

SPECS

  • Key ingredients: KOS organic superfoods blend, KOS premium digestion support blend, KOS organic berry superfood blend
  • Flavor: Goji berry popsicle
  • Price per serving: $1.43/serving
  • Servings per container: 28

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Why We Picked It

While not a traditional pre-workout supplement per se, KOS Love You Berry Much is an antioxidant-rich juice blend that works to elevate energy levels without the use of stimulants. This natural powder contains three different blends of "reds". The organic superfoods blend also features organic ingredients like red beetroot, apple, and pomegranate powders and the organic berry blend has cranberry, raspberry, and goji juice powders. The third blend is for premium digestion support and includes digestive enzymes, organic ginger root powder, and aloe vera extract.

What we also really like about KOS Love You Berry Much—besides the name—is the commitment to clean, non-GMO ingredients that mix well and taste great. Reviewers enjoy the Goji berry popsicle flavor and love how easy it is to incorporate into their daily fruit smoothies for energy without the crash.

What We Like

  • Natural source of energy without added caffeine
  • Plant-based, non-GMO, erythritol and gluten-free
  • Subscribe-and-save program with a 60-day money-back guarantee
  • Users love the flavor

What We Don't Like

  • Uses some proprietary blends
  • Not calorie-free

BUY: KOS Love You Berry Much


Best Non-Stim Pre-Workout with Creatine - Kaged Pre-Kaged® Stim-Free

Best_Non-Stim_Pre-Workout_with_Creatine

SPECS

  • Key ingredients: L-citrulline, creatine HCL, beta-alanine, and BetaPower, L-tyrosine, and taurine
  • Flavors: Fruit Punch, Cherry Bomb
  • Price per serving: $1.69/serving
  • Servings per container: 20

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Why We Picked It

We chose Kaged Pre-Kaged® Stim-Free as the best in this category for several reasons. The first reasons are obvious: Pre-Kaged® Stim-Free contains no stimulants and has 1.5 grams of clinically-dosed patented creatine HCL per serving, along with many other tried-and-true pre-workout ingredients. We also trust Kaged as a brand thanks to their commitment to third-party testing. As an added bonus, Pre-Kaged® Stim-Free features a proprietary antioxidant blend of 29 fruits and vegetable extracts called Spectra® for metabolism support. However, if you aren't a fan of proprietary blends, this may be more of a miss than a hit.

At the time of this writing, Kaged Pre-Kaged® Stim-Free only comes in the Cherry Bomb flavor with 20 servings per container. This translates to about $1.69 per serving (at the time of publication). It is also vegetarian and vegan-friendly. So, if the limited flavor options don't give you pause, Pre-Kaged® Stim-Free is an excellent option for those looking for a premium stim-free pre-workout with added creatine.

What We Like

  • Non-stim pre-workout with 1.5g of creatine
  • Contains a natural superfood blend
  • Third-party tested and banned-substance free
  • Non-GMO, gluten-free, low in calories and sugar

What We Don't Like

  • Only 2 flavors available
  • Just 20 servings per container

BUY: Kaged Pre-Kaged® Stim-Free


Best Non-Stim Pre-Workout for Muscle Gain - Transparent Labs Stim-Free

Best_Non-Stim_Pre-Workout_for_Muscle_Gain

SPECS

  • Key ingredients: Citrulline malate 2:1, BCAA 2:1:1, BetaPure™ betaine anhydrous, taurine, L-tyrosine, choline bitartrate, elevATP® ancient peat and apple fruit extract, BioPerine®, huperzine A
  • Flavors: Cherry Limeade, Sour Grape, Blue Raspberry, Green Apple, Orange, Peach Mango
  • Price per serving: $1.67/serving
  • Servings per container: 30

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Why We Picked It

We chose Transparent Labs Stim-Free as the best non-stim pre-workout for muscle gain because this powerful formula features clinically-effective doses of common ingredients that you'll find in most pre-workouts, like 6,000 milligrams of citrulline malate, 6,000 milligrams of beta-alanine, 4,000 milligrams of BCAAs, 2,500 milligrams of betaine, and 1,300 milligrams of taurine and is a performance powerhouse even without caffeine.

To break it down even further, citrulline malate is used to enhance performance through elevated nitric oxide (NO) levels for resistance and high-intensity training as well as help post-workout recovery.(2) BCAAs can help stimulate muscle protein synthesis or the process of incorporating amino acids into the muscle.(3) Betaine and beta-alanine have been shown to help improve muscle composition and increase training capacity, respectively.(4,5) Last but not least, taurine, an amino acid you're likely to see in most energy drinks, may help increase performance, delay fatigue, and improve recovery.(6)

We like that the Transparent Labs Stim-Free comes in 6 fruity flavors ranging from sour grape to peach mango and is free from artificial flavors, colors, and sweeteners. While the price may feel slightly steep at $1.67 per serving, we still think you're getting your money's worth with each nearly 23-gram scoop.

What We Like

  • Stimulant-free with high amounts of citrulline, BCAAs, beta-alanine, betaine, and taurine
  • Transparent ingredients and doses
  • Variety of flavors available
  • Third-party tested

What We Don't Like

  • Doesn't contain creatine
  • Beta-alanine may cause itchiness/tingles

BUY: Transparent Labs Stim-Free


Best Non-Stim Pre-Workout for Muscle Recovery - Legion Pulse Stim-Free

Best_Non-Stim_Pre-Workout_for_Muscle_Recovery

SPECS

  • Key ingredients: L-citrulline DL-malate, beta-alanine, betaine anhydrous, alpha glyceryl phosphoryl choline (GPC)
  • Flavors: Fruit Punch, Blue Raspberry, Grape, Sour Candy
  • Price per serving: $2.25/serving
  • Servings per container: 20

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Why We Picked It

Recovery is an important part of any training regimen as it allows the muscles to adapt after intense exercise for improved growth and function.(7) Additionally, the faster you recover, the easier it is to get back to the gym for your next heavy training session. We like Legion Pulse Stim-Free for muscle recovery because each scoop includes a clinically-effective 8-gram dose of amino acid citrulline malate to help alleviate post-workout muscle soreness.(8) Legion Pulse is also 100% natural, third-party tested for quality, and has a money-back guarantee.

What We Like

  • Natural, synthetic-free ingredients that are clinically-dosed
  • Transparent labeling
  • Third-party tested
  • 100% money-back guarantee
  • Subscribe-and-save discount

What We Don't Like

  • Expensive
  • Only 20 servings per container

BUY: Legion Pulse Stim-Free


Best Non-Stim Pre-Workout with BCAAs - Gainful Pre-Workout

Best_Non-Stim_Pre-Workout_with_BCAAs

SPECS

  • Key ingredients: L-theanine, L-citrulline, beta-alanine, BCAAs
  • Flavors: Sour Watermelon, Strawberry Lemonade
  • Price per serving: $1.86/serving
  • Servings per container: 14

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Why We Picked It

A product like Gainful Pre-Workout is exciting for the ingredient-minded individuals of the world because with Gainful you have the ability to customize and tailor this pre-workout to fit your supplement needs. Just take their quiz to confer with sports nutrition experts and create a scientifically-dosed formula with the option to adjust the levels of caffeine, creatine, leucine, and L-theanine. The base of the formula already contains potent pre-workout ingredients like BCAAs, beta-alanine, and L-citrulline.

Once your blend is created, choose between the sour watermelon and strawberry lemonade flavors. The ingredient quality and attention to detail make Gainful Pre-Workout more expensive than other options. Additionally, this is a subscription-based service, so there will be a recurring cost, but Gainful allows you to cancel your subscription at any time.

What We Like

  • Fully customizable pre-workout blend
  • High-quality, individually-dosed ingredients
  • 1-on-1 access to RD
  • Subscription-based program

What We Don't Like

  • Somewhat expensive
  • Only 14 servings to start

BUY: Gainful Pre-Workout


Best Non-Stim Pre-Workout for Bodybuilding - Transparent Labs PUMP

Best_Non-Stim_Pre-Workout_for_Bodybuilding

SPECS

  • Key ingredients: Citrulline malate 2:1, NO3-T® arginine nitrate, BetaPure® betaine anhydrous, Setria® L-glutathione, BioFolate®, vitamin C
  • Flavors: Blue Raspberry, Strawberry Lemonade
  • Price per serving: $1.67/serving
  • Servings per container: 30

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Why We Picked It

If you're a heavy lifter or bodybuilder looking for a caffeine-free pre for evening workouts, Transparent Labs PUMP has got you covered. This non-stimulant pre-workout formula is clinically dosed and contains familiar vasodilating ingredients like L-citrulline, along with trademarked ergogenics like NO3-T® arginine nitrate, BetaPure® betaine anhydrous, and Setria® L-glutathione. This blend is also third-party tested and doesn't contain artificial sweeteners, coloring, or preservatives.

With PUMP, you get 8,000 milligrams (8 grams) of citrulline per serving for a big nitric oxide level boost. You also get 2.5 grams of a bonded arginine nitrate that may help increase blood flow to the muscles and potentially reduce the build-up of lactic acid that causes post-exercise soreness.(9) Last but not least, Transparent Labs PUMP comes in two flavors, blue raspberry, and strawberry lemonade, and has a subscribe-and-save program for 10% off and free shipping.

What We Like

  • Non-stim with NO boosting ingredients
  • Transparent labeling
  • Clinically-dosed and third-party tested without fillers
  • Subscribe-and-save program for additional discounts

What We Don't Like

  • Doesn't contain creatine
  • Not a lot of flavor variety

BUY: Transparent Labs PUMP


Best Budget Non-Stim Pre-Workout - Cira Pump Caffeine-Free

Best_Budget_Non-Stim_Pre-Workout

SPECS

  • Key ingredients: Citrulline malate 2:1, NO3-T® arginine nitrate, BetaPure® betaine anhydrous, Setria® L-glutathione, BioFolate®, vitamin C
  • Flavors: Peach Bellini, Pop & Rock
  • Price per serving: $1.16/serving
  • Servings per container: 30

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Why We Picked It

With a name like Cira Pump, you might be surprised to find out that this pre-workout supplement is completely stimulant-free. Not only that, but it's also budget-friendly at just $1.16 per serving with a subscribe-and-save option for an additional 15% off. Cira Pump Caffeine-Free Pre-Workout contains a pre-workout "A-Team" of L-arginine (Nitrosigine®), betaine anhydrous, and taurine.

Cira Pump also includes AstraGin®, a patented combination of Panax notoginseng and astragalus membranaceus used to help increase the efficacy of each ingredient by enhancing their absorption in the body. This pre-workout doesn't contain extras like creatine or BCAAs, but what you are getting is a solid, jitters-and-tingle-free product at a decent price.

What We Like

  • Budget-friendly
  • Vegetarian
  • Reviewers love the flavors
  • Subscribe-and-save program

What We Don't Like

  • Contains some artificial flavors
  • Limited ingredients

BUY: Cira Pump Caffeine-Free


Benefits of Stim-Free Pre-Workouts

Stim-free pre-workout supplements have the advantage of using a pre-workout for training power and focus but are more accessible for active people who are caffeine-averse, have medical concerns, or prefer to keep their stimulant levels low. Stim-free pre-workouts are also beneficial for those who train in the late afternoon or evening, as they're less likely to disrupt sleep.

How We Chose the Best Non-Stim Pre-Workouts

We thoughtfully chose our list of the best non-stim pre-workouts by researching products from brands we trust—Legion and Kaged, for example—with clean, transparent ingredients, certifications, and positive word-of-mouth from athletes and reviewers. We also give extra consideration to products that have a proven track record for excellent customer service.

How Much Do Non-Stim Pre-Workouts Cost?

The cost for non-stim pre-workout supplements varies depending on the quality, amount of ingredients, and servings per container. The non-stim supplements that we chose for our list range from about $1.75 to around $2 per serving. Keep in mind, there isn't much of a price difference between standard and non-stimulant pre-workouts.

Ingredients in Non-Stim Pre-Workouts

As with cost, ingredients for non-stim pre-workouts can also vary depending on the formula with the common denominator being a lack of caffeine. A few ingredients that you should expect to see in an effective pre-workout supplement are:

  • L-citrulline
  • Betaine anhydrous
  • Beta-alanine
  • L-tyrosine
  • Taurine

You may also look for non-stimulant pre-workouts that contain BCAAs or creatine for their post-workout recovery benefits.

How to Choose the Best Stimulant-Free Pre-Workout for You


Ingredients

As we stated above, the quality of the ingredients should be an important factor in determining whether or not to purchase a non-stimulant pre-workout. Brands with clean and transparent ingredients that are clinically dosed should be prioritized. The use of proprietary blends isn't necessarily a no-go depending on your preferences, but it does mean that the amount of each ingredient in the blend is unclear. Additionally, if you're not a fan of the itching sensation that comes from most pre-workouts, you'll want to look for a formula that doesn't contain beta-alanine.

Certifications

We recommend prioritizing brands that hold certifications and are honest about their manufacturing process. Look for products that are third-party tested or Informed-Sport Certified, because these are more likely to be clinically-dosed for the most effectiveness, as well as free from banned substances.

Price

The amount of money that you're willing to spend will always be a consideration when purchasing supplements. Products with high-quality ingredients tend to be more expensive but offer you a wealth of benefits in return. That said, if you're on a limited budget, you can still find a decent non-stim pre-workout with clinically-studied ingredients that can be just as effective.

Purpose

Consider why you're searching for a non-stim pre-workout in the first place. Active people who are sensitive to caffeine or prefer to train in the evenings have much to gain from using a pre-workout without caffeine. Caffeine may give you an initial boost in energy, but can often cause adverse effects like restlessness, headaches, and disrupted sleep. It's possible to get the same benefits for energy and focus with an even greater pump—due to caffeine's blood flow restriction—from a stimulant-free pre-workout.

What to Avoid in a Non-Stim Pre-Workout

First and foremost, you'll want to check the label on your pre-workout to ensure that it is truly "stim-free." Next, look for clean, transparent formulas with clinically proven and effectively dosed ingredients that avoid proprietary blends, meaning you're being given the exact amounts of each ingredient on the label. Also, be wary of artificial sweeteners, flavoring, or unnecessary fillers that may have been added to the formula. Lastly, most non-stim pre-workouts will still contain beta-alanine, a non-essential amino acid that has been known to cause an itching or tingling sensation. In spite of the "beta-alanine itch," this ingredient is still a non-stimulant, but if this is a feeling you wish to avoid, then a non-stim with beta-alanine may not work for you.

Non-Stim Pre-Workouts vs. Regular Pre-Workouts

The inclusion (or exclusion) of caffeine is the largest difference between non-stim and regular pre-workout supplements. You're likely to find that both formulations will have a lot of the same highly-potent ingredients—such as L-citrulline, betaine anhydrous, and beta-alanine—with similar doses. They may also contain extras like BCAAs or creatine. As for price, they're also roughly the same.

FAQs About Non-Stim Pre-Workout Supplements


When is the best time to take a non-stim pre-workout?

The time of day is less important when taking a non-stim pre-workout than it is for a stimulant-based pre-workout due to the lack of caffeine. However, the average recommended time to take your pre-workout is about 30-60 minutes before you plan to exercise. This can vary depending on the product, so make sure to read the label for suggested use. For example, Kaged Pre-Kaged® Stim-Free suggests you take it 30-45 minutes before your workout while Transparent Labs Stim-Free's suggestion is 20-30 minutes.

Why should I take a non-stim pre-workout?

There are many reasons to take a non-stim pre-workout aside from personal preference. The absence of caffeine can help prevent jitters, headaches, nausea, crashes, and sleeplessness, especially for those that train later in the day. Additionally, caffeine can have an effect on blood flow restriction, so using a caffeine- or stimulant-free pre-workout may help you maintain a greater muscle pump when training.

Does non-stim pre-workouts make you tingle?

Non-stim pre-workouts can still make you tingle depending on the ingredients. Formulas that contain more than 2 grams of beta-alanine will likely have that itching or tingling effect.

Can you take a non-stim pre-workout everyday?

In short, yes, you should be able to take a non-stim pre-workout daily as long as you follow the recommended dosage on the bottle. As always, if you're concerned about how a supplement will affect you, start with a smaller dosage to assess your level of tolerance, or consult your doctor or registered dietitian.

Our Final Takeaway

A stimulant-free pre-workout can feel like a lifesaver when you need that boost of training motivation, focus, or pump without the high caffeine content. Stim-free's also have the potential to help make rest and recovery easier for those who train in the evening. Last but not least, these pre-workouts tend to be effectively dosed with the same ingredients you'll find in stimulant-based pre-workouts. So, there is no real downside to using a non-stim pre-workout, especially if you're watching your daily caffeine intake.

These statements have not been evaluated by the Food and Drug Administration. This product is not intended to diagnose, treat, cure, or prevent any disease.

References

  1. Clifford, T., Howatson, G., West, D. J., & Stevenson, E. J. (2015). The potential benefits of red beetroot supplementation in health and disease. Nutrients, 7(4), 2801–2822. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu7042801
  2. Gough, L. A., Sparks, S. A., McNaughton, L. R., Higgins, M. F., Newbury, J. W., Trexler, E., Faghy, M. A., & Bridge, C. A. (2021). A critical review of citrulline malate supplementation and exercise performance. European journal of applied physiology, 121(12), 3283–3295. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-021-04774-6
  3. Wolfe R. R. (2017). Branched-chain amino acids and muscle protein synthesis in humans: myth or reality?. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 14, 30. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12970-017-0184-9
  4. Cholewa, J. M., Wyszczelska-Rokiel, M., Glowacki, R., Jakubowski, H., Matthews, T., Wood, R., Craig, S. A., & Paolone, V. (2013). Effects of betaine on body composition, performance, and homocysteine thiolactone. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 10(1), 39. https://doi.org/10.1186/1550-2783-10-39
  5. Furst, T., Massaro, A., Miller, C., Williams, B. T., LaMacchia, Z. M., & Horvath, P. J. (2018). β-Alanine supplementation increased physical performance and improved executive function following endurance exercise in middle-aged individuals. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 15(1), 32. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12970-018-0238-7
  6. Kurtz, J. A., VanDusseldorp, T. A., Doyle, J. A., & Otis, J. S. (2021). Taurine in sports and exercise. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 18(1), 39. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12970-021-00438-0
  7. Comana, F. (n.d.) Exploring the Science of Recovery. NASM. Retrieved May 30, 2023, from https://blog.nasm.org/the-science-of-recovery
  8. Pérez-Guisado, J., & Jakeman, P. M. (2010). Citrulline malate enhances athletic anaerobic performance and relieves muscle soreness. Journal of Strength and conditioning research, 24(5), 1215–1222. https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0b013e3181cb28e0
  9. Larsen, F. J., Weitzberg, E., Lundberg, J. O., & Ekblom, B. (2007). Effects of dietary nitrate on oxygen cost during exercise. Acta physiologica (Oxford, England), 191(1), 59–66. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-1716.2007.01713.x